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Digital metaphysics is essentially an application of the intuitionist program in mathematics to physics. If space and time are actually infinitely extended or divided, or if there are any continuous quantities in nature, or if any physical entity is infinitely complex, then nature contains actual infinities. Actual infinities entail paradoxes. But since nature is self-consistent, it does not contain any paradoxes, so it does not contain any actual infinities. So, nature is finite.
Eric Steinhart ( 1998: 121)
Introduction
Computerized systems appearing in recent years allow new ways of presenting information like interactive multimedia and hypermedia. These recent creations are now taking place in cyberspace on the Internet. The Web, component of the Internet, includes new ways of communicating. Examples would be electronic mail and the Web. The non-linearity of presentation enables cognitive processes of "reticular" type involved in a telematic communication such as what we are able to experience within the Web. Non-linearity also builds new limits of space and of time perception. Computers mediate our texts and images to one another over time and distance. Let us examine more closely some empirical and philosophical features of time and space ( proxemy (E. Hall) through the consultation and the internal conception of the Internet (which includes such programs as e-mail, the Web, etc. How does the Internet provoke a rupture of the limits of time and space through the diversity of information all connected together in a huge open-work ? How finally is this technology converging with our understanding of the problems of interpretation?
Historical prolegomena
After the Middle A ges, the invention of printing modifies the literary experience taking from an oral and simultaneous experience toward a relation between the reader and the text. This change allows the regularization of the speed of assimilation of information and a demultiplication of the chronotopes (the place and the moment where the reader reads simultaneously a work). The industrialized and mecanised reproduction allows for the original text the ubiquity that it has not when presented under the form of a manuscript (see Boulanger 2003: 244). In other words, information does not require circulating through material transportation. Information goes from one place to another and there has been no faster material transportation since the invention of the telegraph. Production of glossaries helps traveling and ensuring commercial, diplomatic, political and personal relationships. It's also an important tool used to colonize other territories (discoveries of new lands, military expeditions, etc.).
Since then, the Internet has developed a specific strength in its capacity of communicating with others in different countries; but local applications have been more developed and studies in those recent years. The Internet remodels notions of space within pragmatics and cognitive variables. Our perception of space is an important component of our definition of cultures (Zumthor 1990: 24). It also constitutes a philosophical problem in the sense that it concerns the place of the human within the world.
The problem of interpretation is not just present in the way lexical units, texts or contexts aside from information are being codified. It is also affected by the channel of communication, the distance between the people communicating, the time of communication which is accelerated, etc. Two people cannot occupy the same space in the same moment; the situation of each other is unique, as are their perceptions, their points of view (see Barsky 1997: 61 ). Space and time are not observed as a hierarchy on the Internet, but rather as decentralization and fluidity. According to Jacques Anis (1999: 237), hypermetaphor seems the appropriate word to designate the set of symbolic recombinants constructed in and by the hypertext/hypermedia. Within hypermetaphors, the synchronic analysis of reinterpretation of time and space of the Web concerns basically the paradigmatic metaphors and relationships , that is to say those conceived by the mind.
We can understand cyberspace relationships on different levels: communicative, linguistic and geographical. At all these levels of relationships, information is observed within hierarchies. Communication involves a higher density of connections. At the geographical level metropolises have the highest connections to the Web. And, finally, within linguistics, '' reticular '' relationships and paradigmatic navigation involve different conceptions of textual semantics and terminological units. The problematic of a Web page differs from those of a printed page. According to Jean Pruvost , this is what substitutes the parameter of typographic space to the parameter of time "La nouvelle dimension n'est plus en effet celle de l'espace d'inscription très limité dans le dictionnaire papier, mais celle de l'espace illimité offert à l'information. Et par conséquent la nouvelle mesure prépondérante devient celle de l'accès à l'information pour le diffuseur, et celle du temps possible de consultation pour l'utilisateur" (Pruvost 2000 : 100). Thus, if it takes one week to answer an e-mail, it seems longer than if you were to answer by postal mail in one week.
This fact is an important reason why technologies and terminologies have effects on time and space in real life work situations. Therefore, in the daily reality of the worker, there is an impact within the new economy of knowledge. The frontiers, of time and distances are virtually abolished. Inequalities of developments seem reduced, even absorbed. Computers are used in hospital s to keep contact with the environment and act as therapeutic adjuvents . Travelers use them while doing a world tour on bicycle and can regularly send pictures to their correspondents (Bloch-Sibon 2000: 32). Those uses make us use neologisms such as cybertime and cyberspace and more recently computational space-time as used by Eric Steinhart (1998: p. 118).
Many authors (Brunn and Leinbach (1991), William J. Mitchell (1995) , etc.) have written that the collapse of space and time is what cause s the Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) to create a society without distances. This contextualised closing leads us to consider new telematic technologies as a system of symbols, representations, procedures, which are a part of the cyberculture.
In fact, the representation itself is fundamentally unstable. In Hypertext: The convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology (1992), G. Landow insists '' that we must abandon conceptual systems founded upon the idea of center, margin, hierarchy, and linearity and replace them with ones of multilinearity, nodes, links, and network. '' ( Landow, 1992: 2-3 quoted by Alun Jones and Spiro 1995: 151) . This conception of cyberspace involves two hierarchical axioms. One is vertical, the other one is horizontal. The first one concerns the traditional hierarchical power that tends to reimplant itself when the capacity to learn and work cooperatively grows ( see Lévy 1999: 71). This is, in fact the need to improve cooperative research between physicians that is born of the World Wide Web in at the CERN (the acronym stands for the Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire : European Organization for Nuclear Research; in 1954 the name changed for Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire but kept the same acronym ) in Geneva in 1989. Thus, what makes possible this decentralization is the fact that texts are simultaneously constituted and accessible at any place and time (as well as mobile phones, which allow theoretically meditated ubiquity ( Someone can even make believe that he is in a location with his cell phone while he's far from it (at this time radiogoniometry becomes invalid).) . The constitution of these texts create s an architext , i.e . the total of all texts together, that is growing like a spider web.
In 1945, Vanevar Bush, pioneer in the establishment of the hypertextual thought, argues that '' any item can be joined into numerous trails'' (quoted by Anis, 1999: 240). A node of information may also have several out-going links and different types of links. Almost fifty years later, Ted Nelson, credited with coining the term hypertext , develops the concept of transclusion : ''transclusion means that part of a document may be in several places --in other documents aside from the original -- without actually being copied there'' (quoted by Anis, 1999: 242. An equivalent concept has been used in French: ubiquité médiatique , which concern also mobile phones in the capacity they have to extract us from the physical place where we are) . Those two decentralized aspects of Web access can be summarize by borrowing metalinguistic concepts: the decentralized geographical access can be considered as relying on an open-context , and decentralized internal access ( cotext ) is thus considered as an open-cotext . Pierre Lévy states a different opinion. He believes that the density fluctuates according to whether the site is in a central or a peripheral position:
Qu'est-ce qu'un centre ? Un noud de flux. Un lieu géographique ou virtuel d'où tout est " proche ", accessible. Qu'est-ce qu'une périphérie ? Une extrémité de réseau. Une zone où les interactions sont de courte portée et de faible densité, où les contacts au loin sont difficiles et coûteux. Le centre est densément interconnecté à lui-même et au monde, la périphérie est mal connectée à elle-même et ses liaisons avec son environnement sont contrôlées par le centre.
(" What is a centre ? A node of flux. A geographical or virtual place where everything is close and available. What is a periphery? An extremity of networks. A zone where the interactions are of short range and low density, where the distant contacts are difficult and expensive. The centre is densely interconnected to itself and to the world [becoming the source of information], the periphery is badly connected to itself and its links with its environment are controlled by the centre")
(Lévy 1999: 69).
Transportation metaphors
Envisagé sous la métaphore du spatial plutôt que de la multiséquentialité temporelle, l'hypertexte tabulaire se situerait alors dans la continuité de l'évolution qui a fit migrer le texte du rouleau vers le codex et qui a par la suite favorisé l'avènement du magazine.
("Considered under the spatial metaphor rather than the temporal multisequentiality, the tabular hypertext would be located within the continuity of the evolution that made the text migrate from the papyrus scroll to the codex and that has subsequently favoured the advent of the magazine")
(Vandendorpe 1999: 247).
Transportation metaphors, such as Navigator and Explorer tell us that the Internet is an exploration of knowledge, by pathways, paths, hyperspace, maps (See Anis, 1999: 242) through unlimited types of connections and a variety of cognitive apprehension e.g . different paths or trails, selection and organization of the information relevant to the needs of the cybernauts. Hypertext is often regarded as a space in which the internauts navigate according to their navigation paradigms. Even borrowing the same trail, they select different semantic information (See De Surmont 1999). That is also what makes a detective better than another one...
The uses of these metaphors by software companies as well as cyberspace , a word created by the science fiction author William Gibson in his novel Neuromancien published in 1984, tells more about the conception in which the cyberculture is entering in this third millennium. Other relevant metaphors concerning software or maneuvers executed on the Web: surfing , Netscape Navigator , the Microcosm approach to hypermedia defined by W. Hall, Hugh, Davis and G. Hutchings (see 1996 particularly pp. 46-49 concerning the process of information ). Surfing and navigating seem to be the most appropriate words '' pour décrire l'action du cybernaute qui surfe sur la crête d'une vague d'informations sans cesse renouvelée ou qui navigue d'un noeud à un autre dans un océan de documents interconnectés ( to describe the cybernaut's action who surfs on the crest of waves of information that are always renewed or who navigates from one node to another one into an ocean of interconnected documents.) " (Vandendorpe 1999 : 208)." Mario Alinei says that the term navigare ''usato per le retee è stato molto prodittovo nel passato. '' It is used, he says, in many nautical metaphors such as navigare a gonfie vele , col vento in poppa , mettere i remi in barca , navigare a vista , perdere la bussole .'' ( Alinei 1998: 206).
Dillon, McKnight, and Richardson (1990) studied the relationships between navigation in physical space and by hypertext. Navigation in physical space involves four levels of representation: schema, landmarks, routes and surveys. On a first level, learning to navigate a hypertext may involve similar levels. However, Dillon, McKnight, and Richardson (1993) also have pointed out that although the notion of navigation is a useful metaphor, the conception of hypertext as a '' semantic space '' is not realistic. Semantic space is ''an abstract psycholinguistic concept which cannot be directly observed.''(186). ''People do not navigate semantic space, but its physical representations (printed or electronic texts) which are constrained and rather impoverished ( Rouet and Levonen, 1996: 13).''
On a second level, ''the laws of particular physically possible worlds are contingent truths about nature, and so are not ultimate. All physically possible worlds ultimately share a common metaphysical nature: the system of necessary truths about nature . Metaphysical reality is the deep structure common to all physically possible worlds; physically reality is the deep structure of a single species of physically possible world (Eric Steinhart, 1998: 124). ''
Recent research has highlighted the importance of new technologies of information to social life. The French philosopher Pierre Lévy, now teaching in Canada , brings out an interesting relationship between transportation and communications (1999: 67). Printing started at the same time that sailing (merchant navy) and exploration did, the telegraph at the same time as railways, automobiles and telephones. The development of postal services is simultaneous to the efficiency of roads (Lévy 1999 : 67. See also 2000: 24). Moreover, the creation of hypertext by Ted Nelson is contemporary to the extraordinary advancements within sciences and technologies stimulating spatial exploration and at last our own planet. All those developments show the intimate relationship between physical mobility and communications.
The material aspects of de-linearized writing are made possible by the non-existence of material limits. The dematerialization of text production is due to the fact that the interlocutors are emancipated from their physical location. The result is a sort of spatial abstraction by which the cybernaut is able to extract himself from the place where he telecommunicates to the place where is calling his interlocutor without physically participating (Jauréguiberry 1999: 44.) . Thus, in the electronic mail, the deictic retrieval normally done by the ''decoding space '' has no value when the indications of space normally appearing in the upper part of the page or at the end of it do not indicate the place where the person is when writing the letter. This ubiquity is duplication by superimposing of the mediatic on a physical time. On a formal level, there seems to be a shift of spatial occupancy between how masses of information are documented in books to the information stored within the Web without loosing the heuristics and the exhaustivity of information. Historically speaking, some countries (such as the Netherlands ) were controlling trajectories such as the North Atlantic Ocean . There were and there are still some strategic poles of prospecting as there are similarly, on the Web, important searching tools to orient cybernauts toward sites of interest. Sites can then be seen as magnetically more attractive when more cybernauts are reading those sites , as in printing , we know more or less the number of issue of a volume.
The multiplicity evo k es the semiotics decodification and cognitive understanding of the knowledge studied by Umberto Eco in The limits of interpretation and Opera aperta . One of the particularities of cognitive building of intimate space on e-mail is the significant place of the role of perception of that which is home. Susan Leigh Star makes some assumptions about home, asking finally if people are really at home (or domiciled) in cyberspace (See Susan Leigh Star, 1995: 24-26). Lévy, on his side, predicts the disappearance of the cultural identities, countries, etc. within a century (Lévy 2000: 47).
Cyberarchitect
As on a sailboat, every maneuver is a loss of psychic and cognitive energy. Surfing the Web to search and find helpful data in reducing the effort of finding a datum , even in cases in which the quality of the solution is of minor importance, requires optimization (See Judea Pearl, 1985: 15 on devising algorithms). Resolving tasks like an engineer makes the internaut a cyberengineer because he defines paths and possibilities of resolving problems and finds solutions by designing the optimal cognitive solution. On the other hand, he is also an architect. We thus baptize him the cyberarchitect ( The etymological explanation of the word architect illustrates the uses of the metaphor. It come from Greek arkhi ''take initiatives, starting, commanding '' and tektôn ''carpenter, boat builder'' ) . The cyberarchitect builds a space of knowledge along his or her navigation paradigm using a reasonable amount of searching effort. He can retrieve informations as he heads for a destination, making ''tacks'' and ''gybes''. The i nternauts, as we can either observe them, like navigators or architects, have to optimize their objectives, controlling the time session without making so many compromises. But those criteria of navigation do not expunge the unequal quality of Web sites. Like every navigator, the cybernaut must anticipate, sometimes guess, or get to know the best paths to resolve tasks, the best wave to surf, strategies and tactics to become efficient in decision making. Judea Pearl says: '' Since every problem-solving activity can be regarded as the task of finding or constructing an object with given characteristics, [one] of the most rudimentary requirements for computer-based problem solving is: a symbol structure or code which can represent each candidate object in the space'' (1985: p. 15).
One supplementary difficulty would be that for the cognitive conceiver, the conceptor of the Web page, the modification of the data base or the Web site implies a modification of the space in the sense we use it. Modifying a Web site is modifying epistemic paths, i.e. paradigms of navigation more than merely just acting on typographic space. If the text has been considered as closed and autonomous, this classical perspective tends to become problematic with the advent of hypertext as Vandendorpe confirms : ''En échappant ainsi à son auteur, le texte semble avoir quitté le domaine du clos et du stable pour se placer sous la catégorie de l'éphémère et de l'épisodique. Aussi est-il nécessaire de proposer une définition de la textualité qui ne soit pas liée à un support particulier (1999 : [87]).'' Two observations can be made on the lack of achievement of the construction and exploration of the Web, similar to observations and expansion of the cosmos:
a) the sites are often unfinished. The frequent use of under construction or of waiting for the next visitor makes the telematic text in itself an uncompleted, unachieved work , unlike the published book (an exception for Lucien Leuwen is les Pensées de Pascal ) i.e. even if it is a serial publication, it conveys a certain idea of being an achieved work.
b) The Web page scrawl. We do not see all the data of the various materials of the nodes.
The architecture applications to the Web can refer to discursive and performance studies of a Web site. The first refers to the lexicon (the data given), the syntax (the functionalities furnished), the structure (the display and organization of data), the argumentative paths (the progression proposed), the rhetorical procedures (graphics and formal value) and the last concerns the speed of display, ease of access, navigation and research tools offered, actualization of the sites, reactivity (waiting period to get answers to e-mails) (Vedel 2000 : 250) .
Time
Computers are machines used to compress time of elaboration, production and management and to allow a reduction of time into thinner particles. Within this context, the ephemeral aspect of Web pages makes us think that if time and space perceptions are both important elements of our definition of culture, they are consequently a foundation of our social experience. The liveliness of CMC lies on its rhythm of communication contrasted with regular mail and its easier access to information compared to printed book. The rhythm of correspondence with e-mail is commented by David Kolb in these terms: ''E-mail offers focus and fast turnaround. A written letter unanswered for a month is not a serious matter; an e-mail message unanswered for a month may signal the end of a relationship; the message is almost beyond recall, covered over and bypassed in quickly developing conversations with others. The message can be resurrected, of course, but it may be further in the experienced past than a book published ten years earlier (Kolb 1996: 16) .'' Effectively the users now need some information rapidly. The National Library of France (Bibliothèque François Mitterand, Paris) is now scanning many works of French literature (Gallica) and thus answering a considerable need: the need to get information quickly ([In collaboration with], 1999-2000, s. p.).
The Internet brings information closer to the space reserved for intimacy. While by means of books, people have to move toward the information to get it, an inverse movement progressively has appeared with televison, radio and, moreover, with the Internet. This movement toward information must then be considered as a double activity: a) a construction by the author b) a reconstruction by the interlocutor ( Grise 1998: 198) .
The perception of time is also modified while surfing on the Web. First of all there is regular updating of the sites; then the knowledge can be presented in real time. Some aesthetic variables also could be considered since we know that the perception of a book was usually closely related to material presentation. When no time or space restrictions are to be applied to read texts, the reception of the text is quite different. Effectively perigraphical book information does interfere in our appreciation of the text as well as the publisher, the time when it is published, etc. So with electronic editing those parameters do not disappear completely, but they must be reconsidered. For example , the use of the deictic here in web pages does not refer to any geographical place in particular, because same document can be found on many servers at the same time and on different places ( Vandendorpe 1999: 100) .
New modes of writing have developed a field of research in pragmatics , which is the way speech is produced and intended. If conversational use is produced on the fly for synchronous exchanges, in the same way it is intended to be consumed in a rapid and dynamic manner. Authors have discussed the stylistics of computer mediated communication like the oral style of CMC (see Herring 1998; for a definition of CMC see this volume p.[173]. Simple observations show that young women generally write few words when chatting with men and that being a woman makes one automatically receive more letters). The cognitive effort required to process a text also becomes easier when generally common lexical items are used ( Yates 1998: 37). Acronyms are a typographic characteristic of Net culture that is related to space and time available to the internaut. The invention of printing by Gutenberg also had modified the presentation of text and the division into paragraphs. In the Net culture the use of abbreviations and of nicknames are common to those who want to strip down to the fewest possible letters that will enable them to be recognized meaningfully. Time of navigation is based upon reduction of language to a telegraphic style, changing and reducing the syntax to its bare skeleton.
Conclusion
This reference to the metaphor of travelers traveling makes us think about the conceptability of geographers and temporal relationship. Fishers can return to a previous fishing hole with the help of the GPS (Global Positioning System) to make a better capture. Internet business is growing even if web site technologies do not always change the prices of the market. Drugstore products are much more expensive in the United States than in Canada , so web sites of drugtores are consulted to get information but not necessarily to make purchases. Internet became the motor of the economy (Robert Sheckley) because the restrictions of distribution do not deal anymore with the cost involved by exportation as it was twenty years ago. This is particularly the fact of the circulation of information or any data that can be stored on a support. Showing the information instead of keeping it secret is a way to fight the establishment of dictatorship (Levy 1984) and cyberspace has thus became a pure non space that generates collective hallucination (W. Gibson) making easy the telecommunnication networks activity. But, facilitating the access to information and to products through a better managment of time and space is what has also developed cybercriminality especially band spoofing, musical market corruption, etc.
If the interest has been focused in the last years on the universal aspects of the World Wide Web, recent works have highlighted the local usefullness of new technologies in Connected communities. This is precisely the goal of the european project Living Memory within the research program Intelligent Information Interfaces (I3 ) explained in the recent book of Federico Casalegno (2005, 18).
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Notes
[1] This paper is a revised and amplified version of a paper presented at the CAP Conference, August 2000, Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ( USA ). I would like to thank Mark Logue for the reading and correction of the final version of this text and Herbert Simon who gave me some tips.
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